Michael LYNCH, An Introduction to Nineteenth-Century British History (1800-1914), Hodder & Stoughton

Introduction to 19th-Century British Politics: Parties, Reforms, and Social Change

The 19th century was a pivotal period in British political history, characterized by the emergence and transformation of political parties, social tensions, and a series of reforms that laid the groundwork for modern democracy. Britain developed its first party system, initially dominated by two major groups: the Whigs and the Tories.

The Major Political Parties: Whigs and Tories

During the first half of the 19th century, the British political landscape was dominated by two key parties: the Whigs and the Tories. The Whigs were generally seen as progressive, advocating for parliamentary authority and reform, while the Tories were more conservative, seeking to maintain a balance of power among the monarchy, Parliament, and the Church. This difference in ideology became particularly pronounced during the French Revolution, when Tory Prime Minister William Pitt famously argued that it was “unwise to repair one’s roof in the middle of a storm,” emphasizing the importance of stability in times of turmoil.

In 1830, the Tories officially became known as the Conservative Party, and later in the century, the Whigs transformed into the Liberal Party. This adaptability is a hallmark of the British political system; parties continually rebrand and reposition themselves to respond to social and economic changes.

At this time, the House of Commons was an elected body, though far from democratic by modern standards. Voting was restricted to wealthy landowners, and votes were often cast by a public show of hands rather than a secret ballot. The House of Lords, on the other hand, was comprised of hereditary peers, underscoring the influence of aristocratic tradition within British politics.

The Tories, 1815-1830: Response to Economic Hardships and Social Unrest

Reactionary Tories (1815-1822): Responding to the Depression

After a long period of Whig dominance, the Tories returned to power in 1783 and held it until 1830. Following the Napoleonic Wars, Britain faced an economic depression due to a decline in demand for industrial goods and the return of grain imports, leading to a crisis of unemployment and social unrest. In 1815, Parliament passed the Corn Laws, which placed tariffs on foreign grain to protect domestic agriculture and reduce national debt through increased import taxes. This legislation was widely unpopular, as it disproportionately burdened poorer classes who could not afford higher prices.

Public Reaction to Tory Policies

The government’s response to the economic crisis and social unrest led to significant backlash. To offset debt, Parliament chose not to renew the income tax (initially created during wartime), shifting the burden to indirect taxation, which fell most heavily on the poorer classes. This perceived favoritism toward the wealthy, as well as the influence of pamphleteers like William Cobbett, painted the Tory administration of Lord Liverpool as a government that served the interests of the rich.

This period saw a surge in social protest movements:

• Luddism (1811-1817): Skilled workers, rendered obsolete by machinery, protested by attacking factories to resist technological progress.
• The Peterloo Massacre (1819): In Manchester, a peaceful protest against Liverpool’s government ended in violence when cavalry charged into the crowd, killing 11 people. In response, the government enacted the Six Acts to restrict public gatherings.
• Spencean Radicals: Advocated for land nationalization and taxes on the wealthy.
• The Cato Street Conspiracy (1820): A plot to assassinate Liverpool’s cabinet, showing the growing desperation among radicals.
• The Blanketeers: Unemployed workers who attempted a protest march from Manchester to London.

Historians now argue that the Tories of this era were primarily trying to maintain order and were genuinely fearful of social disorder. They lacked a modern understanding of how government could address economic and social problems, seeing repression as the only viable option.

Government Measures Against Disturbances

To control social unrest, the government implemented harsh measures, including suspending habeas corpus and passing the Seditious Meetings Act in 1817, which banned gatherings of more than 50 people. The Six Acts of 1819 allowed for the confiscation of arms and restricted public meetings. The use of government “agents provocateurs” to incite and justify cracking down on protests also became common practice.

The Liberal Tories (1822-1830): A Shift Towards Reform

In 1822, a more liberal faction within the Tory Party gained influence. Leaders such as Robert Peel, George Canning, and William Huskisson implemented several reforms:

• Economic Liberalization: Some tariffs were repealed, and the Corn Laws were modified to encourage freer trade.
• Legal Reforms: The death penalty was abolished for over 100 offenses, and the Metropolitan Police Force was established in London to improve public safety.
• Religious Tolerance: The Test and Corporation Acts, which required government officials to be Anglican, were repealed in 1828, and the Catholic Relief Act (1829) opened government offices to Catholics.

However, this shift in policies led to internal divisions within the Tory Party, particularly over religious issues. When Canning died in 1827, he was succeeded by the Duke of Wellington, whose leadership style did not suit a time of peace and reform. The Catholic Relief Act, introduced under Wellington, marked a significant concession to Catholics, signaling that even conservative leaders were willing to make serious reforms when necessary.

The Whig Reforming Government (1830-1841): Parliamentary Reform and Social Change

The 1832 Reform Act

By 1832, calls for parliamentary reform had reached a boiling point. The existing system no longer reflected population shifts due to the Industrial Revolution, and a new middle class sought political representation. Earl Grey, the Whig Prime Minister, secured King William IV’s promise to create pro-reform peers in the House of Lords if necessary. The Reform Act of 1832 granted voting rights to adult males owning land of a certain value and redistributed parliamentary seats, marking a significant step toward a more representative government. Although this act fell short of a full democracy, it paved the way for future reforms and helped to mitigate radical pressures for revolutionary change.

The Municipal Corporations Act of 1835

Another major reform was the Municipal Corporations Act, which restructured local governments. The old corporation boroughs, which were often outdated and unrepresentative, were abolished, and new borough councils were established, elected by male ratepayers. This reform granted cities like Birmingham and Manchester the right to petition for borough status, fostering local responsibility and improving public administration.

Other Reforms Under the Whigs

In addition to parliamentary and municipal reforms, the Whigs enacted significant social reforms:

• Abolition of Slavery in the British Empire: In 1833, slavery was abolished, marking a major step toward social justice.
• Civil Registration of Births, Marriages, and Deaths: This 1836 measure provided crucial data for social reforms.
• Ecclesiastical Commission: Aimed at reforming the Church of England’s financial practices, this commission promoted transparency and reduced corruption within the Church.

Robert Peel’s Conservative Government (1841-1846): Further Reform and the Repeal of the Corn Laws

The Rise of “New Conservatism”

After the Conservative victory in the 1841 election, Robert Peel ushered in a new era of “conservative liberalism” with his Tamworth Manifesto, which endorsed the 1832 Reform Act and acknowledged the need for gradual reform. Seeking to alleviate the poverty of the “hungry forties,” Peel promoted free trade and lower taxes.

Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)

Peel’s most famous reform was the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, a measure designed to lower food prices and increase trade. While Peel had planned to seek a mandate for this repeal in the 1847 general election, the Irish Potato Famine forced him to act sooner to ensure a reliable food supply. This repeal marked a significant step towards economic liberalization but led to a rift within the Conservative Party, with a faction led by Benjamin Disraeli accusing Peel of betraying conservative values.

Other Reforms

Peel also introduced the Bank Charter Act of 1844, which limited the issuance of banknotes, stabilizing the currency. Although Peel’s pragmatic approach earned him respect, it ultimately split the Conservative Party, giving rise to a more radical conservative faction known as “Young England.”

Conclusion

The political evolution of the 19th century was marked by both conservative and liberal elements in British politics. As the Whigs and Tories adapted to new social and economic realities, Britain moved incrementally closer to a representative democracy. Key reforms, from the 1832 Reform Act to the repeal of the Corn Laws, reflect the era’s shifting attitudes towards governance, economic policy, and social justice. While this progress was often met with resistance, the era’s political adaptability allowed Britain to modernize its political institutions without succumbing to the revolutionary upheavals that gripped many other European nations.