**Section A**
Q.1 Bilingualism In Sanskrit drama.
Ans- In Sanskrit drama, bilingualism refers to the use of more than one language, typically Sanskrit and Prakrit. Sanskrit was used by noble male characters such as kings, priests, and gods, while Prakrit was spoken by women, lower-class men, and servants. This linguistic distinction reflected the social hierarchy and made characters more realistic and relatable to the audience. Bilingualism also added variety, rhythm, and dramatic contrast to the plays. It was a key feature of classical Sanskrit theatre, as seen in works by playwrights like Kalidasa and Sudraka. This multilingual approach enriched the theatrical experience for ancient Indian audiences.
Q.2 Role of Sutradhar
Ans- The Sutradhar plays a crucial role in Sanskrit drama as the narrator and stage manager. He introduces the play, sets the context, and often appears at the beginning of the performance with his assistant, the Nati. The Sutradhar explains the theme, offers background information, and connects the audience to the action. He may also reappear between acts to clarify events or guide the audience through changes in time or setting. As a bridge between the playwright and viewers, the Sutradhar ensures smooth transitions and helps maintain the flow of the narrative, making the drama more engaging and understandable.
Q.3 Bhasa, the playwright
Ans- Bhasa is one of the earliest and most celebrated playwrights in Sanskrit literature. Although his exact dates are uncertain, he is believed to have lived before Kalidasa, around the 3rd century CE or earlier. Bhasa’s plays were rediscovered in the 20th century, with thirteen attributed to him, including Svapnavasavadattam and Urubhanga. His works are known for their emotional depth, dramatic imagination, and bold departures from classical norms, such as modifying epics and introducing tragic endings. Bhasa’s characters are vivid and human, and his influence on later dramatists was profound, making him a foundational figure in Sanskrit drama.
Q.4 Sudraka
Ans- Sudraka was a distinguished Sanskrit playwright, best known for his play Mṛcchakatika (The Little Clay Cart). Believed to have lived around the 4th or 5th century CE, Sudraka's work stands out for its realistic portrayal of society, complex characters, and engaging plot. Unlike the mythological themes common in Sanskrit drama, Mṛcchakatika focuses on human experiences—love, poverty, politics, and morality. It features characters from various social backgrounds, including courtesans, thieves, and Brahmins, making the play lively and relatable. Sudraka’s style combines humor, pathos, and social critique, contributing significantly to the richness of classical Indian drama.
Q.5 Sanskrit drama doesn't have a tragic ending.
Ans- Sanskrit drama traditionally does not have a tragic ending. According to Natyashastra, the ancient treatise on dramaturgy, the purpose of drama is to provide rasa (emotional pleasure) and promote harmony. Therefore, Sanskrit plays usually end on a happy or hopeful note, even if they contain moments of conflict or sorrow. Tragedy, in the Western sense—where the hero meets a disastrous end—is generally avoided. Instead, justice is restored, and good triumphs over evil. Even in serious plays like Urubhanga, where the hero Duryodhana is fatally wounded, the ending conveys peace and moral resolution rather than despair, aligning with classical aesthetic goals.
Q.6 Role of Nayaka in Sanskrit play.
Ans- In Sanskrit drama, the Nayaka is the male protagonist or hero of the play. He is usually a noble, cultured, and brave character, often a king or prince. The Nayaka's role revolves around love, duty, and moral conflict. He is often paired with a heroine (Nayika) and engages in romantic or heroic adventures. According to classical theory, there are different types of Nayakas—such as Dhirodatta (noble and calm) and Dhiralalita (charming and gentle). The Nayaka represents ideal qualities admired in ancient Indian society, such as courage, loyalty, and devotion, and plays a central role in advancing the plot and emotional appeal.
Q.7 Bhaubhuti, the Sanskrit dramatist
Ans- Bhavabhuti was a renowned Sanskrit dramatist and poet of the 8th century CE, often considered the equal of Kalidasa. He was born in Vidarbha (present-day Maharashtra) and served in the court of King Yashovarman. His major works include Malatimadhava, Mahaviracharita, and Uttararamacharita. Bhavabhuti’s plays are known for their deep emotional intensity, philosophical depth, and serious tone. Unlike other dramatists, he often focused on themes of duty, sacrifice, and spiritual values. His language is rich and poetic, appealing to learned audiences. Bhavabhuti contributed significantly to the development of Sanskrit drama through his thoughtful portrayal of human emotions and ethical dilemmas.
**Section B**
Q.1 Various literally influences on classical drama.
Ans- Classical Indian drama, particularly in Sanskrit, evolved through a blend of various literary, cultural, and religious influences. One of the most significant literary sources was the Vedas, which laid the foundation for spiritual and ritualistic expression. Elements like dialogues, hymns, and chants in the Vedas influenced the early dramatic tradition.
The Epics—Ramayana and Mahabharata—played a vital role in shaping the themes, characters, and moral values of Sanskrit plays. Many dramatists like Bhavabhuti and Bhasa drew upon these epics for their plots and characters, blending myth with human emotions and social issues.
The Puranas, with their rich mythological stories and emphasis on dharma (duty), also provided material and inspiration for classical dramas. These texts helped dramatists explore spiritual ideals through storytelling and performance.
Another major influence was Natyashastra by Bharata, the foundational treatise on dramaturgy. It systematized the elements of classical drama, such as plot structure, character types, emotions (rasas), and stagecraft, becoming a theoretical guide for dramatists.
Folk traditions and local theatre forms, such as yakshagana and bhāṇa, influenced the incorporation of music, dance, and humor in classical drama. The use of Prakrit languages alongside Sanskrit introduced realism and connected elite literature with the common people.
In conclusion, classical Indian drama was shaped by a confluence of sacred texts, epic narratives, aesthetic theories, and folk traditions. These diverse influences enriched its structure, language, and themes, making it one of the most sophisticated dramatic traditions in the world.
Q.2 Examine the two worlds of the Hermitage and the court
Ans- In Sanskrit drama, especially in plays like Kalidasa’s Abhijnanasakuntalam, the two contrasting worlds of the hermitage and the court play a central role in shaping the narrative, themes, and character development. These worlds symbolize different aspects of life—spirituality and nature versus politics and civilization.
The hermitage represents a peaceful, natural, and morally pure environment. It is a place of learning, meditation, and emotional innocence. In Abhijnanasakuntalam, Shakuntala grows up in sage Kanva’s hermitage, surrounded by nature and untainted by worldly desires. This world nurtures simplicity, love, and purity, making it an ideal setting for the blossoming of true emotions.
In contrast, the court signifies the world of duty, power, social rules, and political responsibility. When Shakuntala enters King Dushyanta’s court, she faces rejection, emotional struggle, and the harsh realities of royal life. The court operates on rationality, law, and memory, whereas the hermitage is governed by feelings, intuition, and nature’s rhythms.
The conflict between these two worlds highlights the tension between love and duty, emotion and law, nature and culture. However, the play ultimately reconciles both spaces when Dushyanta recognizes Shakuntala and accepts her, symbolizing the union of the personal with the political and the spiritual with the worldly.
Thus, the hermitage and the court are not just physical locations but symbolic landscapes that shape the characters’ journeys and reflect deeper philosophical questions about life, identity, and harmony between nature and society in classical Indian drama.
Q.3 Shakuntala in Mahabharata and in Abhijana Shakuntala
Ans- Shakuntala is a significant character in both the Mahabharata and Kalidasa’s Abhijnanasakuntalam, but her portrayal differs notably in each text, reflecting changes in literary style, cultural values, and dramatic focus.
In the Mahabharata, Shakuntala is presented in a straightforward, realistic manner. She is the daughter of the sage Vishwamitra and the celestial nymph Menaka. She lives in the forest hermitage of sage Kanva and marries King Dushyanta through the gandharva form of marriage. When Dushyanta later fails to recognize her due to memory loss, she boldly confronts him in his court, asserting her dignity and the legitimacy of their son, Bharata. Her character displays strength, self-respect, and moral clarity. The tone is more austere, focusing on dharma and lineage.
In contrast, Kalidasa’s Abhijnanasakuntalam romanticizes and dramatizes Shakuntala’s story. She is depicted as a gentle, graceful, and emotionally sensitive woman. The cause of Dushyanta’s forgetfulness is not intentional denial but a sage’s curse, which adds an element of fate and divine intervention. Shakuntala suffers silently, and her journey is one of emotional growth and eventual reunion. Kalidasa emphasizes her beauty, innocence, and devotion, making her an idealized figure of classical love and pathos.
Thus, while the Mahabharata focuses on duty, justice, and lineage, Abhijnanasakuntalam highlights romance, aesthetics, and emotional transformation. Both portrayals are important, but Kalidasa’s version has had a more lasting cultural impact, shaping how Shakuntala is remembered in Indian literary tradition.
Q.4 Purpose of dramatic art by Bharat muni
Ans- According to Bharata Muni, the ancient sage and author of the Natyashastra, the purpose of dramatic art (Nāṭya) is to educate, entertain, and elevate the audience. Bharata believed that drama was a mirror of life, capable of representing all aspects of human experience—joy, sorrow, love, duty, and morality—through performance.
The primary goal of dramatic art is to create rasa, the aesthetic experience or emotional flavor that a viewer enjoys. There are eight (later nine) rasas, such as love (śṛṅgāra), heroism (vīra), compassion (karuṇa), and laughter (hāsya). When a play evokes these emotions in a refined and controlled manner, it leads to mental purification and emotional harmony.
Bharata emphasized that drama was not just for amusement but had a didactic purpose. It teaches dharma (moral duty), artha (worldly wisdom), and kama (emotional fulfillment) while guiding the audience toward spiritual understanding. It brings people of all classes and backgrounds together and conveys complex philosophical truths in a simple, enjoyable form.
According to the Natyashastra, dramatic art was created by Brahma as a fifth Veda to instruct those who could not study the traditional four Vedas. Thus, theatre became a divine and inclusive medium for learning and enlightenment.
In essence, Bharata Muni saw dramatic art as a sacred and transformative practice that balances pleasure and instruction, combining aesthetics with ethics to cultivate a better individual and a harmonious society.
Q.5 Bharata's Natyashastra as fifth veda
Ans- Bharata’s Natyashastra is regarded as the fifth Veda because it combines the essence of the four Vedas and presents it in a performative and accessible form. According to tradition, Lord Brahma created Natyaveda by drawing elements from the Rigveda (speech), Samaveda (music), Yajurveda (ritual and movement), and Atharvaveda (emotions and sentiments). He entrusted this new scripture to Bharata Muni, who composed the Natyashastra—a comprehensive treatise on drama, dance, and music.
Unlike the four Vedas, which were mainly studied by the upper castes, particularly Brahmins, the Natyashastra was meant for everyone, regardless of class or background. It was designed as a universal medium to teach dharma (moral values), artha (worldly wisdom), kama (emotional fulfillment), and moksha (spiritual liberation) through drama and performance. Thus, it served both an educational and entertaining purpose, making profound philosophical and ethical teachings accessible to common people.
The Natyashastra is not just a manual for actors or dancers but a spiritual and aesthetic guide. It emphasizes the creation of rasa—the aesthetic experience that touches the heart and elevates the soul. Through storytelling, music, gesture, and emotion, dramatic art becomes a reflection of life and a path to inner understanding.
By calling it the fifth Veda, Bharata gave dramatic art a sacred status, placing it on par with the highest spiritual knowledge. The Natyashastra thus stands as a unique confluence of art, religion, philosophy, and psychology, central to India’s classical artistic tradition.
Q.6 Abhijana Shakuntala from point of view of caste
Ans- From the point of view of caste, Abhijnanasakuntalam by Kalidasa offers a nuanced exploration of identity, legitimacy, and social hierarchy in classical Indian society. Shakuntala, the heroine, is born of a celestial nymph, Menaka, and the sage Vishwamitra, but raised in the hermitage of sage Kanva. Though her birth is divine and her upbringing noble, her caste identity is questioned when she arrives at King Dushyanta’s court without proper proof of marriage or lineage.
The court, representing royal and orthodox society, doubts Shakuntala’s legitimacy due to her association with the forest hermitage and lack of parental validation. Despite being the wife of the king, her social status is seen as inferior because she cannot immediately prove her noble birth. This reflects how patriarchal and caste-based structures function in society, often denying women and forest-dwellers a recognized place without formal validation.
However, Kalidasa subtly challenges these caste assumptions. Shakuntala is portrayed as graceful, intelligent, and virtuous, characteristics traditionally admired in high-caste women. Her eventual recognition and acceptance by Dushyanta reaffirm her rightful status. The son she bears, Bharata, goes on to become a great ruler, symbolizing the merging of forest purity and royal power.
Thus, Abhijnanasakuntalam both reflects and critiques caste concerns. It exposes how social status and legitimacy are often dependent on formal recognition, but also celebrates individual virtue and inner worth over rigid caste divisions, suggesting that true nobility lies in character, not just birth.
Q. 7 Kalidasa as secular humanist
Ans- Kalidasa is often regarded as a secular humanist because his works celebrate human emotions, nature, love, and moral values, often going beyond strict religious or ritualistic themes. While his plays and poems are rooted in Hindu mythology and tradition, his primary focus remains on human experience, making his works universally appealing.
In plays like Abhijnanasakuntalam and poems like Meghaduta, Kalidasa highlights the beauty of nature, the depth of human relationships, and the emotional struggles of individuals. His characters are not just divine or royal figures—they are deeply human, filled with love, longing, doubt, and growth. For example, Shakuntala is a tender, emotional woman who faces rejection and pain, but her dignity and virtue ultimately restore her place in society. Similarly, Dushyanta undergoes emotional realization and transformation, which is a humanist theme of inner growth.
Kalidasa’s writings also reflect an appreciation for nature and the physical world. Descriptions of forests, rivers, seasons, and landscapes are not just decorative—they reflect the moods and feelings of his characters. This deep connection between man and nature is a hallmark of humanist thought.
Moreover, Kalidasa does not preach religious dogma. Instead, he promotes values like truth, love, compassion, forgiveness, and duty, which are secular in nature and relevant to all people, regardless of religious belief.
Thus, Kalidasa’s portrayal of human emotion, ethical choices, and the beauty of life supports the view of him as a secular humanist, whose works transcend time and cultural boundaries.
Q. 8 Notion of kingship/loom of time
Ans- In classical Indian drama, particularly in plays like Kalidasa’s Abhijnanasakuntalam and Bhavabhuti’s Uttararamacharita, the notion of kingship and the loom of time are deeply interwoven themes that reflect the philosophical and moral vision of ancient Indian society.
The notion of kingship is rooted in dharma (righteous duty). A king is not just a ruler but a moral guardian of his people. He must uphold justice, truth, and social order. Kings like Dushyanta are portrayed as noble, wise, and emotionally complex, whose personal desires often conflict with their public responsibilities. The ideal king balances rajadharma (duty of a ruler) with compassion and fairness. The king is expected to rise above personal failings and serve the greater good, thus embodying the highest moral values.
The loom of time (also called kāla-chakra) represents the unstoppable flow of fate and cosmic order. In Abhijnanasakuntalam, time causes separation between Dushyanta and Shakuntala but also brings about their eventual reunion. Time tests characters, transforms them, and restores balance. Similarly, in Uttararamacharita, Rama and Sita are torn apart by duty and societal expectations, but time brings understanding, emotional growth, and reconciliation.
Together, these themes highlight how individuals, especially kings, are not entirely free agents but are bound by time, destiny, and duty. The king must act with patience and foresight, trusting that time will reveal truth and restore justice. Thus, classical Indian drama presents kingship as a sacred trust, shaped and tested by the loom of time.
